INTEL's LIGHT PEAK

Intel in its developer form showed off a new technology called "Light Peak" which uses optical interconnects to deliver data at a speeds across devices.Apple reportedly approach Intel with the idea, and it could have many advantages over widely used technologies like USB, especially in small devices.

Light Peak is the code name for a high speed optical cable technology to connect electronic devices to each other, according to Intel.Its bandwidth starts from 10Gbps and it could scale to 100Gbps as it is developed over the next decade.By Autumn of 2010 Apple may be ready to introduce a line of Macs using Intel Peak.

Characteristics:

-> 10Gb/s over optical cable( up to 100 meters in length)
-> connect to multiple devices at the same time.
-> Multiple protocols
-> Bi-directional transfer.
-> Quality of service implementation.
-> Hot plug gable.
-> A full length blue ray movie can be transferred within 30seconds with a data rate of 10Gbps.
Even though this technology is expensive it taps the extraordinary capacity of the optical communications and could leap frog more conventional connections in the next few years.

Intel Xeon Processor X7460

* It is a Xeon 7400 Series xeon processor
* Clock Speed of 2.66GHz
* 16MB of Cache memory
* No of cores are 6
* 1066MHz of FSB Speed
* It is based on 45nm lithography
* Maximum TDP is 130W
* Halogens free options unavailable
* Instruction set of 64bit.
* No of transistors are 1900 million
* Price is $2729.00
* Sockets supported is PGA604
* The compatible Chipset is Intel 7300 Chipset

AMD Phenom II X4 940 Processor

It is a Quad core processor.Unbeatable multi-core value with AMD Phenom II processors. They deliver The Ultimate Visual Experience for high definition entertainment, advanced multitasking performance, and power-saving innovations for smaller, cooler machines that are energy efficient.




Features & Benefits

-> Smoother faster experience, even when running complex software application with native
->Operating modes 32 bit and 64 bit.
-> Speed 3 GHz.
-> Multi-Core Technology
-> Scaled performance to conserve PC power with Hyper Transport 3.0 Technology
-> Hear your music, not your PC with AMD Power Now Technology (Cool n Quiet Technology)
-> Prevent the spread of certain viruses and strengthen your network integrity with Enhanced Virus Protection (EVP)

Intel Core i7 Processor Extreme Edition

This is the fastest performing processor in the world of extreme gaming.It delivers an incredible breakthrough in the performance of gaming.The multitasking will be 25 percent faster whereas video encoding is 79 percent faster and up to 46 percent faster image rendering.This employs two technologies Intel Turbo Boost technology and Intel Hyper-Threading technology which are used for maximizing the speed of demanding applications and enabling the highly threaded applications to get the work done in parallel.



Features

processor number is i7-965
8 processing threads with Intel HT technology
3.20GHz core speed
Smart Cache of 8MB
3 channels of DDR3

Operators in C

C supports large set of operators.An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical or logical manipulations.Operators are used in the programs to manipulate the data and variables.C operators are classified into number of groups.They are

(a) Arithmetic Operators
(b) Relational Operators
(c) Logical Operators
(d) Assignment Operators
(e) Increment and Decrement Operators
(f) Conditional Operators
(g) Bit-wise Operators
(h) Special Operators

Arithmetic Operators:

C provides all basic arithmetic operators which include '+','-','*','/','%'.The operators +,-,* and / all work in the same way as in other languages i.e. they perform addition ,subtraction, multiplication and division respectively.These operators can operate on any built-in data types allowed in C.The unary minus operator, in effect, multiplies its single operand by -1.Therefore a number preceded by a minus sign changes it sign.

'+' means addition or unary plus
'-' means subtraction or unary minus
'*' means multiplication
'/' means division
'%' means modulo division.

Relation Operators:

Generally two quantities are often compared with each other and depending on their result certain decisions are taken.These comparisons can be done using relational operators.C supports six(6) relational operators in all.They are stated as follows:

'<' means is less than
'<=" means is less than or equal to
'>' means is greater than
'>=' means is greater than or equal to
'==' means is equal to
'!=' means is not equal to

Logical Operators:

C has the following logical operators.

&& ----> logical AND
| ------> logical OR
! ------> logical NOT

Assignment Operators:

Assignment operators are used to assign the result of an expression to a variable.The generally used assignment operator is '='.

Increment & Decrement Operators:

The useful operators that are not found in other languages are the increment and decrement operators.The operators are '++' and '--'.
The operator '++' adds 1 to the operand whereas '--' subtracts 1 from the operand.There are two forms that is taken by these operators.They are post & pre increment and decrement operators.Both perform same operation to an operand but they differ when they are assigned to a variable as a statement.The post increment and pre increment of an operand 'm' is

m++;----post increment
++m; --- pre increment

m--;---- post decrement
--m; pre decrement.

x=m++;
This statement assign the value of m to x and later increments the value of 'm'.
x=++m;
This statement initially increments the value of m and later assigns that value to the 'x' variable.

Conditional Operators:

A operator pair "?:" is available in C to construct conditional expressions.The general form of conditional expression is

exp1?exp2:exp3;

The operator pair ?: works as follows
-Initially it evaluates the exp1.
-If exp1 is true then exp2 is executed.
-If exp1 is false then exp3 is executed.

Bit-wise Operators:

C has special operators for manipulation of data at bit level known as bit wise operators.The various bit wise operators present are

&------bit wise AND
|-------bit wise OR
^------bit wise exclusive OR
<<-----shift left
>>-----shift right
~-------One's complement

Special Operators:

C supports special operators such as comma operator,sizeof operator,pointer selection operators(& and *) and member selection operators(. and ->).
The comma operator is used to link the related expressions together.
sizeof operator is a compile time operator and when used with an operand, it returns the number of bytes the operand occupies.The operand may be a variable, a constant or a data type qualifier.pointer operator * is used to access the memory locations value that is stored in the pointer.

DATA TYPES IN C

C language is rich in data types.The various types of data types supported by ANSI C are
-> Primary( or fundamental) data types.
-> User-defined data types
-> Derived data types
-> Empty data set

Primary Data Types:

All C compilers support four fundamental data types,namely integer(int), character(char),floating point(float), and double-precision floating point(double).The extended data types offered by the above data types are long int and long double.All are divided into two categories they are signed and unsigned.The size and range of basic data types are

-----------------------------------------------
DATA TYPE|||||Range of values
-----------------------------------------------
char ---------> -128 to 127
int ---------> -32768 to 32767
float ---------> 3.4e-38 to 3.4e+38
double ---------> 1.7e-308 to 1.7e+308
------------------------------------------------

User Defined Data Types:

C supports a feature known as "type definition" that allows users to define an identifier that would represent the existing data type.The general form is
typedef type identifier;
where type refers to an existing data type which can be any of the data types i.e.primary or user defined etc...
identifier refers to the new name given to the data types which is declared in the statement.As said ';' indicates the end of the statement.

Derived data types:

Derived data types are nothing but the combination of the different data types that are present inbuilt or user defined.The examples of derived data types are arrays,functions,structures and pointers.

Sample C program

main()
{
/*.......................printing begins............*/
printf(" sample program");
/*.......................printing ends.............*/
}

The main() is a special function used by C to tell the computer where the program starts.Every program must have exactly one main function.If we use more than one main function, the compiler cannot tell which one marks the beginning of the program.The empty parentheses immediately after main indicates that the function main has no arguments(or parameters).

The opening brace '{' indicates beginning of main and the closing brace '}' indicates the end of the function.All the statements between the opening brace and ending brace indicate the function body.The function body contains a set of instructions to perform the given task.

The lines beginning with /* and ending with */ are known as comment lines which are used to enhance the readability and understanding of a program.Comment lines are not executable statements and therefore these lines are ignored by the compiler while executing a program.

The printf is the only executable in the given program.printf is a predefined function in the standard C library.For printing in the next line or start printing in a new line the printf statements should be appended with /n before the statement to start line and after the statement to start from the next line after the statement that is stated in the printf statement.

The general format of simple C program is
main() <--------------------------- function name { <----------------------------------- start of program ............ ............<============== program statements ............ } <----------------------------------- end of program

Rules to C Programs

The rules that are applicable to all C programs :

(a) Each instruction in a C program is written as a separate statement.Therefore a C program consists of a series of statements.

(b) The statements in the program should appear in the order in which we wish them to be executed; exceptionable to the ' jump' or transfer control statement.This means that C program executes sequentially.

(c) Blank spaces can be inserted between two words to improve the reliability of the statement, but no blank spaces are allowed within a variable,constant or keyword.

(d) All statements sin C program are entered in small case letters.

(e) It doesn't have specific rules for the position at which statements are to be written.

(f) Each statement in C must be ended with a ';' which acts as a statement terminator.

Character Set of C

The characters that can be used to form words,numbers and expressions depend upon the computer on which program is run.The characters in C are grouped into the following categories:
1. Letters
2. Digits
3. Special Characters
4. White Spaces
The compiler ignores white spaces unless they are a part of string constant.White spaces may be used to separate words, but are prohibited between the characters of keywords and identifiers.

Alphabets A,B,...................,Y,Z.
a,b,.....................,y,z.
Digits 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.
Special symbols ~`!@#%^&*()_-+=\{}[]:;"'<>,.?/

Constants,Variables and Keywords:

The alphabets,numbers and special symbols when properly combined forms constants,variables and keywords.
- A constant is an entity that doesn't change whereas variable is an entity that may change.
- C constants are divided into two major categories:
(a) Primary Constants.
(b) Secondary Constants.
- Primary constants are further categorized as integer,real and character constants.
- Secondary constants are categorized as array,pointer,structure,union,Enum etc....

Rules for Constructing Integer Constants:

- An integer constant must have at least one digit.
- It should not have decimal point.
- can be either positive or negative.
- If no sign precedes an integer constant it is assumed to be positive.
- no commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.
- allowable range of integer constants are -32768 to 32767.

The range of the integer constants depend upon the type of compiler.

Ex: 426,+782,-8000 etc.....

Rules for Constructing Real Constants:

- It should contain at least one digit.
- must have a decimal digit.
- could be either positive or negative.
- Default sign is positive(+).
- no commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant.

Ex: +325.34,426.0,-32.76 etc........

Rules for Constructing Character Constants:

- It is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.Both the inverted commas should be left(i.e. ' ' ).For example, 'A' is a valid character whereas `A' is not.
- maximum length of a character constant can be 1 character.
Ex: 'A' 'I' '5' '='.

Variables:
An entity that may vary during the program is called a variable.

Rules for Constructing Variable Names:

- A variable name is any combination of 1 to 31 alphabets,digits or underscores.
- The first character of variable name must be an alphabet or underscore.
- No commas or variables are allowed within a variable name.
- No special symbols other than underscore( _ ) can be used in a variable name.

Ex: si_int, m_hra,tot_class etc...............

C Keywords:

- Keywords are the words whose meaning has already been explained to the C compiler.There are 32 keywords available in C.The list of keywords present in are as follows:

auto
double
int
struct
break
else
long
switch
case
enum
register
typedef
char
extern
return
union
const
float
short
unsigned
continue
for
signed
void
default
goto
sizeof
volatile
do
if
static
while.

Compile vendors (like Microsoft, Borland etc....) provide their own keywords apart from the mentioned above.

Introduction to C

Introduction:

The name 'C' seems to be strange for a programming language.But this sounding language is one of the most popular computer languages today. C was an offspring of the 'Basic Combined Programming Language(BCPL)' called B, developed in the 1960s at Cambridge University. 'B' language was modified by Dennis Ritchie and was implemented at Bell Laboratories in 1972.The new language was named C.Since it was developed along with the UNIX operating system, it is strongly associated with UNIX.This operating system which was also developed at Bell Laboratories, was coded almost entirely in C.

Importance of C:

The increasing popularity of C is probably due to its many desirable qualities.It is a robust language whose rich set of built-in functions and operators can be used to write any complex program.The C compiler combines the capabilities of an assembly language with the features of a high level language and therefore it is well suited for writing both system software and business packages. In fact, many of the C compilers available in the market are written in C.
Programs written in C are efficient and fast.This is due to its variety of data types and powerful operators.It is many times faster than BASIC.There are only 32 keywords and it strength lies in its inbuilt functions.Several standard functions are available which can be used for developing programs. C is highly portable.This means that C programs written for one computer can be run on another with small or no modification.Portability is important if we plan to use a new computer with a different operating system.C language is well suited for structured programming,thus requiring the user to think of a problem in terms of function modules or blocks.Another important feature of C is its ability to extend itself.With the availability of large functions, the programming task becomes simple.

OSI Reference Model

Introduction:

The OSI model is the basic model and the old model of the networking.This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization(ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers.It was proposed by Day&Zimmermann in 1983.The principle is divide and conquer.

Guidelines:

The OSI model has seven layers.The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:

- A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
- Each layer should perform a well defined function.
- The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally standardized protocols.
- The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
- The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not become unwieldy.

The different layers that are present in OSI reference model are
- Physical Layer
- Data Link Layer
- Network Layer
- Transport Layer
- Session Layer
- Presentation Layer
- Application Layer

The services provided by each layer are as follows

Physical Layer

- Raw bit transmission
- communication medium(twisted pair/coaxial cable)
- mode of communication(simplex/half duplex/full duplex)
- type of transmission(base band/broad band)
- voltage levels.
- Bit periods.

Data Link Layer

- Framing
- Error Control
- Frame Control

Network Layer

- Packet Routing
- Packet Congestion
- Inter Networking problems
- Billing

Transport Layer

-Packet & message creation
- Crash recovery
- multiplexing

Session Layer

- session creation
- token management
- synchronization

Presentation Layer

- data compression
- cryptography
- mismatch of representation

Application Layer

- email
- directory server
- File transfer
- Domain Name Server(DNS)
- WWW

OSI - Open System Interconnection
ISO - International Standards Organization

Computer Network

Definition:
The process of interconnecting autonomous computers to have a reliable communication among themselves is called computer networking and resultant system is called computer network.

autonomous means independent systems.
reliable communication refers to
- information should reach the destination.
- information should reach in order-no disordering.
- information should reach without error.
- information should reach destination in full.
- information should reach in time.
- information should reach correct destination.
- information should not get repeated like duplication, triplication etc....

The goals of computer network are
- Resource sharing
- Reliability
- Cost effectiveness

The applications of computer network are
- Reservation of tickets
- email
- world wide web(WWW)
- teleconferencing
- automated news
- online shopping and surgery and many more...........
The basic reference model used in computer network is ISO/OSI reference model.

Memory

A memory unit is a device to which binary information is transferred for storage and from which information is available when needed for processing.When data processing takes place, information from the memory is transferred to selected registers in the processing unit.Intermediate and final results obtained in the processing unit are transferred back to be stored in memory.A memory unit is a collection of cells capable of storing a large quantity of binary information.There are two types of memories that are used in digital systems
i)RAM (Random Access Memory)
ii)ROM(Read Only Memory)

Random Access Memory(RAM):

A memory unit is a collection of storage cells together with associated circuits needed to transfer information in and out of the device.The time it takes to transfer information to or from any desired random location is always same,hence the name random access memory named RAM.
Both read and write operations can be performed on the RAM. Whenever a PC starts the basic files are loaded from ROM to RAM for the turning ON of the computer so that the PC starts.There are two types of RAM that are majorly manufactured.They are SRAM & DRAM.
RAM of different sizes like 128MB,256MB,512MB,1GB,2GB etc are available in the market.The various manufacturers of RAM are Intel, Rambus etc....

Read Only Memory(ROM)

A read only memory is essentially a memory device in which permanent binary information is stored.The binary information must be specified by the designer.The input to ROM is address location whereas the output is data located in the specified address which means that only READ operation can be performed in ROM.ROM is used to store the permanent data and it is considered as the code memory in which the instructions to the microprocessor are stored.Generally ROM consists of the instructions to be specified to the processors and in microcontrollers ROM contains the program to be executed written by the programmer and the memory is erasable.The different types of ROM are ROM,PROM or EPROM,EEPROM,ROM (flash type).The ROM can be programmed and it can be erased by many means through UV light, electricity etc,.........
Hence RAM and ROM provide efficient working of the processor

Types of Micro Processors-III

Digital Signal Processors:

DSP's are specially designed to process signals.They receive digitized signal information, perform some mathematical operations on the information and give the result to an output device.Many companies produce DSP chips.
Examples are Texas Instruments,Motorola,National,Fujitsu etc..

NECuPD7281 is specially designed for image processing applications.It was manufactured by Texas Instruments.It can also be used to implement FFT or numeric processing.
Intel also developed a DSP chip, Intel 2920.It was earlier DSP chip.Later many designed improved chips.

Symbolic Processors:

These are designed for expert system, machine intelligence, knowledge-based system,pattern recognition etc.Basic operations performed for artificial intelligence are logic interference,search,pattern matching,filtering etc..Symbolic processors are also called PROLOG processors or LISP processors.

Bit-Slice Processors:
Customized processors are built using basic building blocks.Processor of desired word length were developed using building blocks and the basic building block is bit-slice.Examples of bit slice processors are AMD-2900 series,AMD 2909,AMD 29300 series etc........

Transputers:

Specially designed microprocessor to operate as a component processor in a multiprocessor system was called transputer.It was build on VLSI chip and contained a processor,memory and communication links.link is to provide a point to point communication between the transputers. Transputers contains FPU,on chip RAM, high speed serial link etc...Examples of transputers are INMOS T414,INMOS T800 etc.

Graphic Processors:

For graphics also special processors are designed which are nothing but graphic processors.Intel has developed Intel 740-3D graphics chip which is optimized for Pentium II computers.These provide applications in multimedia games and movies.Examples for graphic processors are
Intel 82786,IBM 8514/A,Texas TMS34010 etc.....

For array processor click here

For RISC and CISC processors click here

Types of Micro Processors-II

RISC & CISC Processors:

RISC means Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
CISC means Complex Instruction Set Computer.
The classification is based on the type of instruction set.In RISC the instruction set is simple and have the limited number of the instructions (under 100 instructions) where as CISC has instruction set larger and complex.RISC processors are faster than the CISC processors.Each instruction in RISC is executed in one clock cycle and most RISC instructions are register to register operations.Memory access is limited only to load and store instructions.In CISC, to execute an instruction a number of micro operations are performed.To perform each micro operation a micro instruction is executed.For each instruction there is a micro code.It is based on micro programming approach which makes CISC slower when compared to RISC processor.

Examples of RISC processors are DECs Alpha 21064,21164 and 21264processors,Power PC processors etc..
Examples of CISC processors are Intel 386,486,Pentium, Pentium Pro,Pentium II, Pentium III,Pentium 4;Motorola's 68000,68020,68030,68040 etc...

For Array Processors click here

For DSP Processors click here

Types of Micro Processors-I

The different types of microprocessors are

• Vector Processors
• Array Processors
• Scalar & Super scalar Processors
• RISC & CISC Processors
• Digital Signal Processors
• Symbolic Processors
• Bit-Slice Processors
• Transputers
• Graphic Processors

Vector Processors:

A vector processor is designed to make vector computations.A vector is defined as a array of operands of same type.Let us consider the following vectors
Vector 1 (a1,a2,a3,....................,an)
Vector 2 (b1,b2,b3,...................,bn)
Vector 3= Vector 1 + Vector 2
=C(c1,c2,c3,.................,cn) , where ci is given as ci= ai +bi for all i=1,2,3,..............,n
A vector processor adds all the elements of vector 1 and 2 using a single vector instruction using hardware approach.Vector processors are often used in a multipipelined super computers.

Array Processors:

Array Processors also known as SIMD processors.These processors are designed for vector computations. Difference between vector and array processor is that a vector processor uses multiple vector pipelines whereas an array processor employs a number of processing elements to operate in parallel.The array processors works under the control of control processor which is a scalar processor.An array processor consists of multiple number of ALUs each having a local memory.The ALU with local memory is called as Processing element(PE).An array processor is a Single Instruction Multiple Data(SIMD) type processor.

Scalar & Super scalar Processors

A processor which executes scalar data is called scalar processor.The simplest scalar processor makes processing of only integer instruction using fixed point operands. A powerful scalar processor can process both integer and floating point numbers.It contains integer ALU and floating point unit(FPU). It can be either RISC or CISC processor.Examples are Intel 386,486(CISC), Intel i860(CISC).

A super scalar processor contains multiple pipelines and executes more than one instruction per clock cycle.Examples are Pentium,Pentium Pro,Pentium II,III,Power PC etc.

For RISC and CISC processors click here

For DSP and other processors click here

Categorization of attacks

The Security attacks are broadly categorized into
I. Passive attacks
II. Active attacks

I. Passive attacks :
Passive attacks are in the nature of eaves dropping on, or monitoring of transmission. The main goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted on the network.
Passive attacks are of two types
-> Release of message contents
-> traffic analysis

-> Release of message contents : A telephone conversation, an electronic mail message and a transferred file may contain sensitive or confidential information. We would like to prevent the opponent from learning the content of these transmissions.

->Traffic analysis : Suppose that we have a way of masking contents of messages or other information traffic so that opponents, even if they captured the message ,they could not extract the information from the message. The common technique of masking contents is encryption. If we have an encryption technique protection in place, an opponent might still be able to observe the pattern of messages .Th opponent could determine the location and identity of communicating hosts and could observe the frequency and length of messages being exchanged. This information might be useful in guessing the nature of the communication that was taking place.

Passive attacks are difficult to attack because they do not involve any alteration of the data. It is feasible to prevent the success of these attacks .Thus, the emphasis in dealing with passive attacks is on prevention rather than detection.

II.Active attacks :
It is the second major category of attack. These attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false stream and can be subdivided into
-> Masquerade
-> Replay
-> Modification of messages or
-> Denial of service.

-> Masquerade : A masquerade takes place when one entity pretend to be another entity. A masquerade attack usually includes one of the other forms of active attack.

-> Replay : Replay involves the passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent re-transmission to produce an unauthorized effect.

-> Modification of messages : It simply means that some portion of a legitimate message is altered or that messages are delayed or reordered to produce an unauthorized effect.

-> Denial of service : It prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of communication facilities

Active attacks presents the opposite features of passive attacks. Active attacks are difficult to prevent because to do so we require physical protection of all communication facilities and paths at all times,whereas passive attacks are difficult to detect. The main goal of this active attack is to detect them and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by them.

Security Attacks

Attacks on the security of a computer system or network are best characterized by viewing the function of the computer system as providing information .

In general,there is a flow of information from sender or a source to receiver or a destination .
The following are the general categories of Security attack
-> Interruption
-> Interception
-> Modification
-> Fabrication

-> Interruption : An asset of a computer system is either destroyed or becomes unusable or unavailable. It is nothing but an attack on availability.

Examples : Destruction of a piece of hardware such as hard disk,cutting of a communication line etc.....

-> Interception : An unauthorized party includes either a person or program or a computer gains access to an asset.This is an attack on confidentiality.

Examples : wiretapping to capture data in a network etc.....

-> Modification : This is an attack on integrity.Here in this modification ,an unauthorized user not only gains access to an asset but also tampers with an asset.

Examples : changing values in a data file,altering a program so that it performs differently and modifying the content of messages being transmitted in a network.

-> Fabrication : This refers to an attack on authenticity. Here in this category, an unauthorized party counterfeit objects into the system .

Examples : insertion of spurious messages in a network or the addition of records to a file.

Reasons for cheating

The following are the several reasons for cheating
-> Gain unauthorized access to information
-> Impersonate another user either to shift responsibility or else to use the others license for the purpose of
a) Originating fraudulent information
b) Modifying legitimate information
c) Using fraudulent identity to gain unauthorized access
d) Fraudulently authorizing transactions or endorsing them
-> Claim to have received from some other user information that the cheater created
-> Claim to have sent to a receiver information at a specified time that was not sent or was sent at a different time.
-> Enlarge cheater's legitimate license for access , origination,distribution etc.....
-> Modify the license of others
-> Conceal the presence of some information in other information
-> Insert self into a communications link between other users as an active undeducted relay point .
-> Learn who accesses which information and when the accesses are made even if hte information itself remains concealed .
-> Cause others to violate a protcol by means of introducing incorrect information
-> Undetermine confidence in a protocol by means of introducing incorrect information
-> Prevent communication among other users .

The following are three aspects of information security
Security attack :
Any action that compromises the security of information owned by an organization
Security mechanism :
A mechanism that is d esigned to detect,prevent,or recover from a security attack.
Security Service :
A service that enhances the security of the data processing systems and the information transfers of an oranization. The s ervices are intended to counter security attacks .and htey make use of one or more security mechanisms to provide the service.

Classification of Security Services
The following are the classification of security services
-> Confidentiality
-> Authentication
-> Integrity
-> Non-repudiation
-> Access Control
-> Availability
Confidentiality :
It ensures that the information in a system and transmitted information are accessible only for reading by authorized parties .This type of access includes printing, displaying, and other forms including revealing the existence of an object
Authentication :
It ensures that the origin of a message or electronic document is correctly identified with an assurance that the identity is not false
Integrity :
It ensures that only authorized parties are able to modify computer system assets and transmitted information.The modification may be writing,changing status,deleting,creating and delaying or replaying of transmitted messages.
Non-repudiation :
It requires that neither the sender nor the receiver of a message be able to reject the transmission
Access Control :
It requires that access to information resources may be controlled by the target system or for the target system.
Availability :
It requires that computer system assets be available to authorized parties when needed.

INTEL DESKTOP BOARD DG31PR

-> It is based on the Intel G31 Express Chipset.
->INTEL DESKTOP BOARD DG31PR has been optimized to deliver new levels of performance and reliability for the home and business users.
-> It is a classic series mother board.

The boxed Intel Desktop Board DG31PR solution includes:
• ATX 2.2 Compliant I/O Shield
• Floppy, SATA, and ATA 100/66 Cables
• Board and Back Panel I/O Layout Stickers
• Quick Reference and Product Guide
• Intel Express Installer Driver and Software CD
• Windows Vista Premium WHQL certified

Software Included:
• Diskeeper Home Edition
• Norton Internet Security
• Skype
• Type Pad
• Kaspersky Anti-Virus (Russian)
• Kingsoft Antivirus (Chinese)

Features and Benefits

-> It supports Intel D Core 2 Quad Processor and Core 2 Duo Processor.
-> The chipset offers a new level of visual quality with integrated graphics media accelerator.
-> It contains Dual channel DDR2 SDRAM which can support up to 4GB and delivers great

performance and flexible memory support.
->Four serial ATA ports which transfers data up to 3Gb/s for each of four ports.
->contains PCI Express x16 Graphics connector
->Integrated Network Connection
->Integrated High Definition Audio wit 5.1 surround sound
->Micro ATX form factor: great for mini tower systems
->Two PCI connectors
->One PCI Express x1 connector
-> Eight high Speed USB 2.0 ports.
Fig : view of the board and indicated features
It enriches multimedia experience with Intel Audio Studio and Premium VoIP service offers.

HP Pavilion a1610IN Desktop PC

HP a1610IN PC

Quick Specifications

• Intel Pentium D Processor 925 with EM64T
• (2x2 MB L2 Cache,3.0 GHz, 800 MHz FSB, Dual-core)
• 512 MB PC2-4200 DDR2 SDRAM(533 MHz)
• 160GB SATA Hard drive (150 MB/sec @7200 RPM)
• 16x Super Multi Drive with LightScribe, Double Layer (8.5 GB)
• Windows Vista Home Basic

Model
-> HP Pavilion a1610IN

Processor
->Intel Pentium D Processor 925 with EM64T, Dual-core.
->800 MHz Front-side Bus speed.

Cache Memory
->2x2MB Integrated L2 Advanced Transfer Cache.

Chipset
->ATI RC415 Chipset; Socket 775.

Memory-DDR2

• 512 MB PC2-4200 DDR2( 533 MHz)
• 2 DDR2 DIMM Slots ( Expandable to 2GB with discard).

Hard Drive
-> 160 GB Serial ATA Hard Drive
->150 MB/sec @7200 RPM

DVD Super Multi-Drive with DL
-> 16x DVD Light Scribe techonology
->40x CD/CD-R/RW Read
->40x/32x CD-R/RW Write etc.

Two memory Slots
-> Two 240-pin DIMM Slots (Occupied).

and many other specifications like Fax/Modem, 9 in 1 Digital Media Reader, Expansion Slots, Expansion Bays,I/O connectors and Software's like Windows Vista Home Basic,Adobe, Digital Video Editing etc.

Drivers Download

chipset

audio drivers

graphic drivers

Processors Manufacturers

The biggest microprocessor companies in the world are:
Intel
AMD
VIA
Microchip

Intel


Intel is the leading company in the processor manufacturing. Intel was founded on July 18th,1968 as Integrated Electronics Corporation.It is the most oldest company in the field of manufacturing processors for home purpose and many other applications. It is first a developer of SRAM and DRAM chips later in the year 1971 Intel created the first micro processor chip.Many processors have been developed by this manufacturer.It not only develops processors but also develops motherboards and many products. It is a center for computer peripherals generation.Some of its processors are 4004 (first micro processor),8085, X7460,X7350,W5580,L5520etc.

AMD


Advanced Micro Devices Incorporation is an American multinational semiconductor company which develops computer processors.Its products include microprocessors, mother boardsetc.It is the second largest global supplier of the microprocessors after the Intel Corporation. It was founded on May 1st,1969.Athlon,Opteron ,Duron and Phenom categories and there are many other processor categories as well.Some of the processors are AMD Phenom II, AMD Athlon II ,Athlon 64etc.

VIA


It is Taiwanese manufacturer of integrated circuits mainly motherboard chip sets,CPU's and memory.It is the worlds largest independent manufacturer of mother board chip sets.It was founded in 1987.Some of its products are VIA Nano Processor L series,U series,C7 M mobile Processor, C7 Desktop Processor,VIA PLE133T(IG) chipset etc.They provide supported chip sets for different processors manufactured by different companies as well.

Microchip

It was founded in 1987 which is based on micro controllers,memory and analog semiconductors.Unlike the above three these is a firm that designs products belonging to the micro controllers. The different micro controllers that ate designed by these are 8-bit PIC micro controllers 16 bit PIC controllers,d Spic,32 bit PICs and also develops the analog and interface products and it also designs the memory products like serial SRAM and seial EEPROMS.In April,2009 it announced the nano Watt XLP micro controllers with worlds lowest sleep current.

RBI's Credit Control Measures

RBI has various weapons of credit control .By using them it tries to maintain monetary stability.The weapons of the credit control are broadly divided into

-> Quantitative control

-> Qualitative (or) Selective Credit Control

Quantitative control regulates the volume of total credit.whereas the qualitative or selective controls regulates the flow of credit for various uses and purposes.

The quantitative credit control instruments are bank rate,open market operations and variation of cash reserve ratio.

I. Bank Rate :

Bank rate is the rate at which the reserve bank is prepared to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial paper eligible for purchase under the act.Increase the bank rate reduces the credit creation power of banks and decrease in bank rate increases the credit creation power of the banks.

II. Open market operations :

The term open market operation refers to purchase or sale of government securities by the central bank.Purchase of securities by the central bank in open market reduces in multiple expansion of credit and sale of securities leads to credit contraction by the bank.

III.Variation of Cash reserve ratio :

the central bank can control credit by variation of cash reserve ratio.A raise in this ratio reduces the credit creation ability of the banks and results it in increasing the credit creation ability of the banks.

IV. Selective Qualitative Credit controls :

With the help of selective credit control methods the central bank can control and direct the flow of credit in the country.These control regulates the use of credit by discriminating between essential and non essential purposes.

V.Moral persuasion and direct action :

Central bank may refuse to grant further loans or re discount of bill for the banks to control their credit creation ability.The central bank may request banks not to use the accommodation of obtained for financing speculative or non essential transactions.

Limitations of Credit Creation

Banking system can create unlimited amount of credit expansion of deposits.But In reality, the power bank is to create multiple credit or deposits are subject to a number of limitations.

-> Amount of Cash : Larger the amount of cash with the banking system greater will be the credit creation and vice-versa

->Cash Reserve Ratio : The second limiting factor of credit creation power of bank is cash reserve ratio. Lower the cash reserve ratio, higher the credit creation power and higher the cash reserve ratio,lower will be the credit creation power of the banks.

-> Availability of Borrowers : Banks create credit means of loans and advances .Therefore the extent of credit creation depends on the availability of borrowers.If there are no borrowers there will be no credit creation.

->Availability of Securities : The banks can grant loans only against the approve securities.Hence ,higher the availability of approved securities higher will be the credit creation power of the banks.

->Banking Habits : Development of banking system and the habits of the people also influences the credit creation power of the banks.

->Business Conditions : Credit creation is further limited by the nature of business conditions.During depression,when due to low profit expectations business man do not come forward to borrow from banks,credit creation will be very small.On the other hand,during the period of business prosperity ,the profit expectations are high .The businessman approach the banks for loans and there will be greater ,creation will be smaller during depression and larger during business prosperity.

->Monetary policy of Central Bank : One of the important functions of central bank is to control credit creation and power of the commercial banks in the country ,To control the credit creation power of the banks ,the central bank adopt different policies such as bank rate policy ,open market operations ,cash reserve ratio.Hence the credit creation power of the bank depend upon the central bank policy.

->Leakages : The actual credit creation of the banking system may be considerably smaller than the potential credit creation due to certain leakages.Following are the two leakages in the credit creation process of the banks.

->Excess Reserve : The bank may not be willing to utilize their surplus funds over the cash reserve ratio and decide to maintain excess reserve.

->Currency Drains : The cash withdrawals (or) currency drains reduces the power of hte banks to create credit.

Credit Creation

Bankers are not only traders of money but also manufacturers of money.Because of their power to create money ,banks have come to occupy a crucial role in the economy.
Bank credit means bank create deposits through loans,advances and investments.A bank keeps a certain proportion of its deposits as minimum reserve for meeting a demand of the depositor and lends out the remaining excess reserve to earn income.The bank loan is not trade directly to the borrowers but is only credited in his account.Every bank loan creates an equivalent deposit in the bank.
Thus credit creation means multiple expansion of bank depositss.The word "creation" refers to the ability of the banks to expand deposits as a multiple of its reserve.
Inorder to understand the process of credit creation ,a proper knowledge of some basic concepts are necessary
-> Bank as a bussiness institution : Bank is a bussiness institution which aims at maximising profits through loans and advances from the deposits.
->Bank deposits : Bank deposits form the basis for credit creation. Ham ha classified deposits in to two types :
1.Primary Deposits
2.Secondary (or) Derived deposits.
1. Primary Deposits : When a bank accept the cash from the customers and opens the deposit account in his name, it is called Primary (or) passive deposits.In htis deposits they simply convert currency money into deposit money .Out of these deposits bank grant loans and advances.
2. Secondary Deposits : When a bank grant loans and advances it;instead of giving cash to the borrowers ,opens a deposit account in his main. This deposit is called secondary or derivative or derived deposit.Every bank loan creates a deposit.It is called derived deposit because it has been derived from the loan. When bank discounts a bill of exchange it does not pay cash but credits the account of the customer .Similarly,when a bank purchases a government bond from the customer it credits the account .
->Cash Reserve Ratio : The percentage of deposits,which the banks are required to keep in the form of cash to meet day to day withdrawals is called "Cash Reserve Ratio".This ratio will be prescribed by the central bank from time to time.Higher the ratio ,lower will be the credit creation and vice-versa i.e... lower the ratio,higher will be the credit card creation by the banks.
->Excess Reserve : The reserve that a bank holds about the required cash reserves are called "Excess reserves".Excess reserves are equal to total reserves (total deposits) minus required reserves i.e...
Excess reserves = Total reserves - required reserves

Secondary Functions

In addition to the main functions commercial bank provides a wide variety of banking services .These services can be divided into
-> Agency Services
-> General Utility Services.
I. Agency Services :
Bank also perform certain agency functions for and on behalf of customers
-> Remmittance of funds : Banks help their customers in transferring funds funds from one place to another through cheques,draft etc..
-> Collection and payment of credit instruments : banks collects and pays various credit instruments like cheques,bills of exchange ,promissiry note etc on behalf of their customers.
-> Purchase and sale of securities : Banks purchase and sell various securities like shares ,stocks,bands,debentures on behalf of their customers.
-> Collection of dividends on shares : Banks collect dividends and interest on shares and debentures of their customers and cresit them to their accounts.
-> Act as correspondent : Sometimes banks act as representatives and correspondent of hteir customers.They get passport ,travellers tickets, and plots for their customers and receive letters on their behalf.
-> Income tax consultancy : Banks also employee income tax experts to prepare income tax returns for hteir customers and t help them to get refund of income tax.
-> Act as a trusty and executor : Banks preserve wills of customers and execute them after their death .
II.General utility services :
In addition to agency services ,the modern banks provide many general utility services .
-> Locker facility : Banks provide locker facility to their customers .The customers can keep their valuables and important documents in their lockers for safe custody.
-> Traveller's cheque : Banks issue travellers cheque to help their customers to travel with out the fear of theft or loss of money.With this facility,the customers need not take th risk of carrying cash with them during their travels.
-> Letter of credit : It is issued by the banks to their customers certifying their credit worthyness.Letter of credit are very useful in foreign trade.
-> Collection of Statistics : Banks collect statistics giving important information relating to industry,commerce,money and banking.They publish journals and bullitens
-> Gift cheques : Some banks issue gift chques of various denominations [pay Rs 11,Rs 21,Rs.51,Rs 101..] to be used on auspicious occassions.
-> Dealing in foreign exchange : Banks will deal in foreign exchange for promoting foreign bussiness .
-> Underwriting securities : Banks will act as underwriters for the shares and securities issued by company and government.

Credit Creation
The main and unique function of the bank is to create Create Credit.When a bank advances a loan to its customer,it doesn't pay cash.It opens the account in the name of borrower and credits the amount to that particular account and can withdraw the amount whenever he wants .In this case bank has created deposits witout receiving cash that is banks are set to have created credit.
Promoting Cheque System :
Bank provides a very useful medium of exchange in hte form of cheques.Through a cheque, the depositors direct the bankers to make payment to the payee.Cheque is hte most developed credit instrument in the money market.In the modern business transaction cheques have become much more convenient method of setting debts of bank than the use of cash.

Advancing of loans

The second important function of the bank is advancing of loans to the public.After keeping certain reserves,the bank lend their deposits to the needy borrowers.Before advancing loans ,the banks satisfied themselves about the credit worthyness of the borrowers .The following are the various types of loans that are granted by the bank .
->Money At Call
->Cash credit
->Overdraft
->Discounting hte bills of exchange
->Term Loans
->Personal Loans
->Credit Cards
Money at Call : These loans are very short period loans and can be called back by hte bank at a very short period that may be from one day to fourteen days.These loans are generallly made to other banks (or) financial institution (or) dealers (or) brokers of stock exchange.
Cash Credit : These loans are given to the borrowers against their current assets such as shares,stocks,bonds etc... The bank opens the account in the name of borrower and allows them to withdraw borrowed money from time to time.Interest is charged only on the amount actually withdrawn from the account.
OverDraft : Sometimes the bank provides overdraft facilities to its customer through which they are allowed to withdraw more than their deposits.interest is charged from the customers on the withdrawn amount.
Discounting the bills of exchange : This is one of the popular types of lending by the modern banks.Through this methos a holder of a bills of exchange can get it discounted by the bank.
In a bills of exchange the debtor accepts the bill drawn upon him by hte creditor and agree to pay the amount mentioned on maturity.After making some marginal deductions the bank pays the value of bill to the holdeer when hte bills of exchange matures .The bank get its payment from the party which had accepted the bill.
Term Loans : The Banks have also started advancing medium term loans and long term loans.The maturity period for such loans is more than 1 year .the amount sanctioned is either paid or credited to the amount of borrower.The interest is charged on the entire amount of the loan and the loan is paid either on maturity (or) in installments.Loans are given for the construction of houses,purchase of flats etc...
Personal Loans : These loans are given to the salaried employees to buy customer durables like scooter,T.V,refrigerators, houses and flats etc... the loan amount is recovered in instalments from out of the salries.The personal loans also provide education loans to the students to pursue higher studies.
Credit Cards : Now a days all banks are issuing Credit Cards to individuals inoreder to enable them to buy goods without carrying cash.The bill or voucher for hte goods purchased is sent by the vendor to the banker.The credit card facilities is made available for specified amounts. Credit Cards are accepting in hotels,travel agencies,cloth showrooms,petrol pumps etc...

Avast 4.8 edition

Avast anti virus provides free service to the resident users (Home Edition) whereas for Professional Edition users they have to buy. They provide keys for home edition if you get registered to the avast site. Avast 4.8 many On access services. While doing a work it scans all the things.There are around 7 services for the home edition and around 8 services in the Professional Edition.The different services that are present in the On acess Scanner are
->Instant Messaging
->Internet Mail
->Network Shield
->Outlook/Exchange
->P2P Shield
->Standard Shield
->Network Shield
whereas Professional Edition provides additional tool of checking the ip's that which are trying to hack our system and displays the IP.
Instant Messaging scans the messages that are through the messengers like yahoo messenger,Google talk, msn/window messenger, skype, simple instant messenger, AIM(AOL Instant Messenger) and many other messengers.
Internet Mail scans the different messages that are composed through the mail.
Network Shield shows the warning messages which sites may affect the system.
Outlook/Exchange scans the mail that are send through the MS Outlook.
P2P Shield scans the received fields for the different applications.
Standard Shield scans the system files in the back end if any virus found it displays the message that the virus has been detected.
Web Shield scans the urls that are going to be visited by us. It also provides URL blocking and many other services.
The avast can be found easily by searching in the Google with the keyword "avast".

History of Forex

Money in one form or the other has been used by man for centuries. At first it was only gold or silver coins. Goods were traded against other goods or against gold. So, the price of gold became a reference point. But as the trading of goods grew between nations, moving quantities of gold around places to settle payments of trade became risky and time consuming. Therefore, a system was sought by which the payment of trades could be settled in the seller's local currency. The important dates in the Forex History are

Early 20th Century

Only in the 20th century paper money start regular circulation. This happened by force of legislation, the efforts of central banks to manage money supplies, and governmeny control of gold supplies.

1929
The dollar has been perceived as more of a has-been, due to the Stock Market Crash and the subsequent Great Depression.

1930
The Bank for International Settlements (BIS) was established in Basel, Switzerland. Its goals were to oversee the financial efforts of the newly independent countries, along with providing monetary relief to countries with temporary balance of payments difficulties.
1931
The Great Depression, combined with the suspension of Gold Standard, created a serious diminution
in foreign exchange dealings.

World War II
Before World War II, currencies around the world were quoted against the British Pound. World War II crashed the Pound. The only country unscarred by the war was the US. The US dollar became the prominent currency of the entire world.

1944
The US dollar became the world's reserve currency.

1957
The European Economic Community was established.

1967
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) were created.

1978
The International Monetary Fund officially mandated free currency floating.

1979
The European Monetary System was established.

1999
January 1st, the Euro makes its official appearence within the countries members of the European Union.

There are many other important dates in the forex history.Supply and demand are the driving factors fr determining exchange rates.

Players in the Forex market

Central Banks
Banks
Interbank Brokers
Retail Brokers
Commercial Companies
Hedge Funds
Investors and Spectators.

Functions of Reserve Bank of India.

The Reserve Bank of India performs the following functions.

Acts as a Bank of Issue : The Reserve Bank has the monopoly of note issue in the country.It has a sole right to issue currency notes of all denominations except one rupee notes.One rupee notes and small coins are issued by ministry of finance.Currency notes are issued under the principle of minimum reserve in the form of gold and foreign exchange reserves of Rs.200 crores out of which at least Rs 115 crores should be in gold.

Bankers to the Government : The Reserve Bank acts as the banker agent and adviser to the central as well as to the stage govt.The central government and State government have accounts with RBI
->It receives all taxes and incurs public expenditure on behalf of the govt.
->It also manages public debts and helps in flotation of new loans for which it is paid some commission.
->It grants loans to the central and state governments for short period not exceeding 90 days.
->It advices the government on financial and economic matters such as loan operations,investments,agricultural and industrial finance , banking,planning,economic development.
->It transfer government funds from one place to another and from one account to another account.
->It provides finance for the development of the government for carrying out five year plans.
->It acts as an agent of the government in dealing with international monetary fund and the world banks.

Acts as a Banker to the Bank : The Reserve bank also acts as the banker's bank All the banks in the country have accounts with RBI. Every scheduled bank must keep certain percentage of its total deposits with the RBI.
Bank also provides financial assistance though loans and advances against up to securities.
The Reserve bank acts as a custodian of cash reserves of other banks and also acts as a clearing agent for commercial banks.
It undertakes supervision and regulation of banks as per the provisions of banking regulation act 1949

Lender of Last Resort : The Reserve bank provides financial assistance to the commercial banks in times of emergencies when all other resources of credit are exhausted.It provides financial assistance by re-discounting the bills by exchange and any other eligible commercial paper.This function of the Reserve Bank is known as " Lender of Last Resort."

Controller of Credit : The Reserve Bank of India acts as the controller of credit.This is perhaps ,the most important function performed by the reserve bank. The Reserve Bank has power to determine the lending policy to be followed by a particular bank or banks.In general, controlling the volume ,direction and quality of credit is one of the most outstanding functions of reserve bank.It employees different methods to control the expansion or contraction of credit and to establish at a desired level.
The following methods are adopted to control the credit.
Bank rate policy
Open market operations
Variation of cash reserves and
Qualitative Credit Control

Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserve : The Reserve Bank is the custodian of India's foreign exchange reserves.It maintains and stabilizes external values of the rupee.Administers exchange controls of the country.It is also the responsibility of reserve bank to maintain fixed exchange rates with all other member countries of the international monetary fund.